tel [Type I, spelling]
bout [Type II (unstressed syllable deletion (most dialects)]
fren {Type II, CCR and possessive -S absence (AAVE)]
basebal (Type I, spelling)
wen (Type I, spelling)
we together (Type II, copula absence, (AAVE)]
things he (Type I, missing period)
basebal (Type I, spelling)
Last (Type II, CCR (most dialects)]
yere (Type I, spelling)
look (Type II, tense unmarking, (AAVE, Latino))
chanc (Type I, spelling)
Im (Type I, missing apostrophe)
prety (Type I, spelling)
tho (Type I, spelling)
knowed (Type II, past tense levelling, (Southern, AAVE))
James the [Type II, copula absence (AAVE)]
player we (Type I, missing period)
miss (Type II, past tense unmarking (AAVE, Latino)
couldnt (Type I, missing apostrophe)
weak (Type I, spelling)
Chapter 12 | Exercises
Exercise 12.1
In the following sample composition, there are two types of digression from written English. First, there is a set of errors related to the mechanical conventions of written language. These include various mistakes in the application of arbitrary punctuation conventions and some types of spelling errors (e.g. to versus too, fair versus fare). The second set of nonstandard writing forms may reflect the influence of spoken language by a speaker of a vernacular dialect.
Based on your knowledge of vernacular dialect features, differentiate the “error” types, labeling mechanical problems as Type I errors and spoken language influence as Type II. In the case of those forms classified as Type II, indicate what vernacular dialect feature may be the source of the spoken language influence. You may need to consult the Appendix of distinguishing dialect features for this exercise.
Based on your knowledge of vernacular dialect features, differentiate the “error” types, labeling mechanical problems as Type I errors and spoken language influence as Type II. In the case of those forms classified as Type II, indicate what vernacular dialect feature may be the source of the spoken language influence. You may need to consult the Appendix of distinguishing dialect features for this exercise.
I tel you bout me and my fren basebal team. wen we together we do all kinds of things he play basketball and I play basebal. Las yere I seen the basketbal teme play and it look like I didnt have a chanc of making it. Im a prety good baseball player tho and the coch knowed it. James the best player we miss him when he couldnt play last weak.
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12.1 Answers
Exercise 12.2
Collect some examples of mock language from the internet. You can find many examples by using a search engine simply to find sites on “Ebonics” or “Spanglish.”
Although these sites may seem, at first glance, to be innocent fun and entertainment, what is the underlying language ideology represented in these caricatures? Do linguists who rail against such parodies take themselves too seriously? Why or why not?
Although these sites may seem, at first glance, to be innocent fun and entertainment, what is the underlying language ideology represented in these caricatures? Do linguists who rail against such parodies take themselves too seriously? Why or why not?
Exercise 12.3
Examine the following passage from Richard Wright’s Native Son. The passage portrays the vernacular dialect of an African American preacher. Answer the following questions, based on the passage, which is taken from page 263 of a 1961 publication of this work. The original work was published in 1941.
- What forms seem to be simple examples of eye dialect?
- What cases of spelling change represent actual phonological differences?
- What kinds of grammatical details are included in the passage?
- Are there phonological and grammatical differences that you might expect but that do not appear in the passage?
fergit ever’thing but yo’ soul, son. Take yo’ mind off ever’thing but eternal life. fergit what the newspaper say. Fergit yuh’s black. Gawd looks past yo’ skin ’n inter yo’ soul, son. He’s lookin’ at the only parta yuh tha’s His. He wants yuh ’n’ He loves yuh. Give yo’se’f t’ ’Im, son. Lissen, lemme tell yuh why yuh’s here; lemme tell yuh a story tha’ll make yo’ heart glad.
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How does the author use dialect to portray the voice of the African American preacher? What effect does the use of dialect have in this instance? How important is dialect accuracy in this portrayal?
12.3 Answers
1. fergit, ‘n, Lissen, yuh
2. yo’ (r-lessness), ever’thing (unstressed syllable deletion), Gawd (diphthongization), lookin’ (velar fronting), tha’s (CCR), yo’se’f (r-lessness , l deletion), lemme (CCR)
3. newspaper say (plural -s absence), yuh’s black (is/are levelling), yuh’s here (is/are levelling)
Exercise 12.4
Work through the following exercise as if you were a student in a dialect awareness program. What might a student learn about grammatical rules pertaining to vernacular dialects from this exercise? The exercise is from Reaser and Wolfram (2007).
Plural absence on nouns
In English, we form a regular plural by adding an ‐s sound, so that we say one dog but two dogs or a cat but two cats. In some rural dialects of the South, there is a set of nouns that do not take ‐s endings. List A gives some of the nouns that do not need to add a plural ‐s. As you look at the sentences in List A, answer the following questions:
What kinds of things do the nouns in List A refer to?
Is there a common topic for these nouns?
What kinds of words occur before the noun?
List A: nouns without plural ‐s
List B: nouns with plural ‐s
In List B the nouns in the sentences must take a plural ‐s ending. What is the difference in the type of nouns in List A and List B that might explain why some nouns must have the ‐s and why others do not need it? Look at the differences in the meaning of the nouns in List A and List B.
In List C the same nouns of List A are given, but as they are used in List C they must have the ‐s plural. What is the main difference that can explain when the ‐s is needed and when it is not needed?
List C: when the plural ‐s needs to be present
After examining the three lists of words, you should be able to figure out the rule or pattern for leaving off the ‐s plural. The rule has two parts. One part has to do with the meaning of the noun and the other part has to do with the kind of word that modifies the noun.
List D: predicting ‐s plural absence
Plural absence on nouns
In English, we form a regular plural by adding an ‐s sound, so that we say one dog but two dogs or a cat but two cats. In some rural dialects of the South, there is a set of nouns that do not take ‐s endings. List A gives some of the nouns that do not need to add a plural ‐s. As you look at the sentences in List A, answer the following questions:
What kinds of things do the nouns in List A refer to?
Is there a common topic for these nouns?
What kinds of words occur before the noun?
List A: nouns without plural ‐s
- We caught two hundred pound_ of flounder.
- How many bushel_ does he have?
- There are two pint_ sitting in the back yard.
- There are lots of gallon_ of water.
- They have three acre_ for building.
- It’s about six mile_ up the road.
List B: nouns with plural ‐s
In List B the nouns in the sentences must take a plural ‐s ending. What is the difference in the type of nouns in List A and List B that might explain why some nouns must have the ‐s and why others do not need it? Look at the differences in the meaning of the nouns in List A and List B.
- We caught two hundred cats.
- How many dogs does he have?
- There are two chickens sitting in the back yard.
- They have lots of ponies down below.
- They have three sisters.
- It’s about six teachers.
In List C the same nouns of List A are given, but as they are used in List C they must have the ‐s plural. What is the main difference that can explain when the ‐s is needed and when it is not needed?
List C: when the plural ‐s needs to be present
- We had pounds of flounder that spoiled.
- Sometimes people use bushels instead of pounds.
- The pints of ice cream are in the freezer.
- We had gallons of water in the skiff.
- The best acres are owned by the government.
- The beautiful beaches go for miles.
After examining the three lists of words, you should be able to figure out the rule or pattern for leaving off the ‐s plural. The rule has two parts. One part has to do with the meaning of the noun and the other part has to do with the kind of word that modifies the noun.
- State the exact pattern for ‐s plural absence based on your analysis of the nouns in Lists A, B, and C.
- Say which of the nouns in List D must have the ‐s and which do not need the ‐s ending and say why. If you have stated the rule for plural ‐s correctly, you should be able to do this without guessing.
List D: predicting ‐s plural absence
- She had three pound_ of fish left.
- She had pound_ of fish left.
- It’s forty inch_ to the top.
- It’s inch_ to the top.
- There are six cat_ in that yard.
- There are cat_ in the yard.
12.4 Answers
1. the noun must be a measurement/ a count noun
2. the noun must be modified by a quantifier
2. Plural -S must be present, because although ”Pound” is a count noun, there is no quantifier in front of it
3. Plural -S can be absent, because “Inch” is a count noun, there is a quantifier in front of it
4. Plural -S must be present, because although ”Inch” is a count noun, there is no quantifier in front of it
5. Plural -S must be present, because “Cat” is not a count noun
6. Plural -S must be present, because “Cat” is not a count noun
List A
The nouns without plural -S are nouns of some sort of measurement (count nouns). Some sort of quantifier (a number, or quantifying adverb like ‘many’) word comes before the noun. A preposition (like ‘of’) or an -ing verb tends to follow the noun.List B
The nouns with the plural -S are things rather than measurements/count nouns. A quantifier (a number/amount) precedes the noun, telling us how much of the noun there is, such as “fifteen cats” rather than “fifteen pounds of catnip”.List C
The nouns with plural -S are not preceded by a quantifier (i.e., a number or indication of quantity). The rule has two parts:1. the noun must be a measurement/ a count noun
2. the noun must be modified by a quantifier
List D
1. Plural -S can be absent, because “Pound” is a count noun with a quantifier in front of it2. Plural -S must be present, because although ”Pound” is a count noun, there is no quantifier in front of it
3. Plural -S can be absent, because “Inch” is a count noun, there is a quantifier in front of it
4. Plural -S must be present, because although ”Inch” is a count noun, there is no quantifier in front of it
5. Plural -S must be present, because “Cat” is not a count noun
6. Plural -S must be present, because “Cat” is not a count noun
Exercise 12.5
Before you watch the video answer the following questions:
- Do you ever feel that you have to change the way you speak? Why?
- When you change your speech, is it mostly conscious or unconscious? That is, do you have to think about it or does it just happen naturally?
- List five situations where you are likely to change your speech. Rank these situations from 1 to 5, with 1 being the situation where you have to be most careful about the way you speak and 5 being the situation where you can be most casual.
Now watch the video above. As you watch, think about the following questions:
- Could you hear differences in the speech of individuals in different situations?
- Are these African Americans aware of the fact that they change their speech or not?
- Why do you think that they feel as though they must change their speech in different situations?